Christ Submitted to the Father

First Peter 2:22–25 speaks of the submission of Christ to his Father. His submission brought us redemption, justification, reconciliation, and propitiation. It brought us the blessing of double transaction, meaning that our sin, guilt, wrath, and punishment were taken over by Christ when he died for our sins, and his perfect righteousness is now granted to us. Thus, we have been justified, redeemed, and reconciled to God by the propitiatory sacrifice of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. If this is true of us, we are the happiest people on the face on the earth, for we have been saved forever.

Beginning in 1 Peter 2:11, the apostle spoke about the submission of believers to God and to his delegated authorities. All believers are to submit to the rulers of the state, and house slaves must submit to their house masters. Now, beginning with verses 22 through 25, Peter describes Christ’s own submission to his Father in the accomplishment of our redemption.

A believer who has confessed Jesus Christ is Lord will joyfully obey the Lord and all his delegated authorities, now and forever, by the power of the Holy Spirit. Jesus asked, “Why do you call me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ and do not do what I say?” (Luke 6:46). Those who are disobedient to Jesus Christ are not saved. James writes, “In the same way, faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action [obedience], is dead” (Jas. 2:26). Jesus himself obeyed, and we are also called to obey, as we read in Hebrews 5: “Although he was [Son], he learned obedience from what he suffered and, once made perfect, he became the source of eternal salvation for all who obey him” (Heb. 5:8–9).

We want to examine five points about Christ’s submission as found in this passage.

Follow Jesus in Suffering

In the previous passage, Peter wrote, “To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example that you should follow in his steps” (1 Pet. 2:21). As believers in Jesus, we are called to suffer. Years ago, I was at Cape Comorin, at the southern tip of India. There the Holy Spirit spoke to me, “Unless a kernel of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains alone” (see John 12:24–26). Christ died for us, and we are called to suffer with him. He said, “Deny yourself, take up the cross, and follow me, even to death” (see Matt. 16:24–26).

Jesus tells his followers, “Come and die.” And all true believers will gladly follow in the footsteps of Jesus and suffer for his name. They are not confessing “Jesus Christ is Lord” to get rich and famous in this fallen sinful world. They know that this present world is destined for destruction, as Peter tells us: “But the day of the Lord will come like a thief. The heavens will disappear with a roar; the elements will be destroyed by fire, and the earth and everything in it will be laid bare” (2 Pet. 3:10).

Peter himself had been allergic to suffering. He counseled Jesus not to go and die on the cross, and tried to prevent the soldiers from arresting Jesus. He denied Jesus three times to protect himself from suffering as Christ’s disciple. But after his resurrection, Jesus restored Peter and predicted that Peter would prove his unconditional love for Jesus by suffering crucifixion himself. Peter followed in the footsteps of his Lord, and we are also called to deny ourselves, take up the cross, and follow Jesus, even to martyrdom, if needs be. John writes, “Whoever claims to live in him must walk as Jesus walked” (1 John 2:6).

The Sinless Christ

Peter says about Christ, “He committed no sin and no deceit was found in his mouth” (v. 22). Jesus did not commit any sins, neither was any guile found in his mouth.

Centuries before Christ’s birth, the prophet Isaiah foresaw the sufferings, death, and resurrection of Jesus. He declared, “He was assigned a grave with the wicked, and with the rich in his death, though he had done no violence, nor was any deceit in his mouth” (Isa. 53:9).  Later, John wrote about this: “Even after Jesus had done all these miraculous signs in their presence, they still would not believe in him. This was to fulfill the word of Isaiah the prophet:  ‘Lord, who has believed our message and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?’ For this reason they could not believe, because, as Isaiah says elsewhere: ‘He has blinded their eyes and deadened their hearts, so they can neither see with their eyes, nor understand with their hearts, nor turn—and I would heal them.’ Isaiah said this because he saw Jesus’ glory and spoke about him” (John 12:37–41).

Jesus was sinless; he was perfect God and perfect man. The following scriptures speak about his sinlessness:

• 1 Peter 1:18–19: “It was not with perishable things such as silver and gold that you were redeemed . . . but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect.”
• 1 Peter 3:18: “For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit.”
• 2 Corinthians 5:21: “God made him who had no sin to be sin for us, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God.”
• Hebrews 7:26: “Such a high priest meets our need—one who is holy, blameless, pure, set apart from sinners, exalted above the heavens.”
• 1 John 3:5: “But you know that he appeared so that he might take away our sins. And in him is no sin.”
• John 8:46: Jesus challenged his enemies, “Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?”
• John 19:6: “As soon as the chief priests and their officials saw him, they shouted, ‘Crucify! Crucify!’ But Pilate answered, ‘You take him and crucify him. As for me, I find no basis for a charge against him.’”

As perfect God and perfect man, Jesus alone could fulfill God’s law perfectly. He did so by his active and passive obedience. A sinful Jesus could not redeem anyone, for he himself would need a redeemer. The resurrection of Christ proves that Jesus was sinless.

The Silent, Suffering Christ

Peter continues, “When he was being reviled, he was not reviling back. When he was suffering, he was not threatening. But he was entrusting, committing, all things to his Father, who judges justly” (v. 23, author’s translation).  Peter was reflecting on what Isaiah had prophesied about Christ: “He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth” (Isa. 53:7).

Jesus lived his entire life led by the Spirit in the power of the Spirit. After he was baptized in the Holy Spirit, the Spirit led him into the desert to be tempted. He came back to Galilee in the power of the Holy Spirit and went to his synagogue in Nazareth, where he read from Isaiah 61:1, “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has anointed me to preach the gospel to the poor” (see Luke 4:18–19).

The Spirit of the Lord rested on Jesus: the Spirit of wisdom, of understanding, of counsel, of knowledge, of power, and of the fear of the Lord, and he delighted in the fear of the Lord (Isa. 11:2–3). Like our Lord, we also must be filled with and led by the Holy Spirit. The Christian life is impossible unless we are regenerate and indwelt by the Holy Spirit. Only when this is true of us can we say, “I can do everything through him who gives me strength” (Phil. 4:13).

Jesus lived by the Holy Spirit all his life. Even his crucifixion was by the power of the Holy Spirit, as the Hebrews writer tells us: “How much more, then, will the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself unblemished to God, cleanse our consciences from acts that lead to death, so that we may serve the living God!” (Heb. 9:14).

Every true, born-again believer will live by the Holy Spirit. Peter tells us, “If you are insulted because of the name of Christ, you are blessed, for the Spirit of glory and of God rests on you” (1 Pet. 4:14). The word “rest” comes from Isaiah 11:2–3. The Spirit of God is resting on God’s people all the time, to refresh, empower, and enlighten them.

First Peter 2:23 tells us that not only was Jesus silent before his tormenters, but he also committed all his troubles to his Father, the righteous Judge (Gen. 18:25). He prayed to his Father, who had declared, “This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.” Elsewhere Peter says, “Cast your cares, your worries, your burdens on the Lord because the Lord cares for you” (see 1 Pet 5:7).  The Greek word for “cast” is epirriptô. It means to throw, to commit, to entrust something to another, so you do not carry that burden anymore. It is like throwing a saddle onto the back of the horse; you do not carry the burden any longer.

If you are burdened or troubled, I urge you to come to God in prayer today. Entrust your burdens to him so that you will not carry them anymore. God Almighty will carry them for you.

Jesus entrusted his burdens to his Father even as he committed his spirit to his Father before he died. Luke tells us, “Jesus called out with a loud voice, ‘Father, into your hands I commit my spirit.’ When he had said this, he breathed his last” (Luke 23:46).  God is our burden bearer, even as the father bears the burden for his child.

When King Hezekiah received a threatening letter from the wicked Sennacherib, king of Assyria, what did Hezekiah do? He went to the temple and prayed, in effect, “O Lord, you have a letter here from Sennacherib. Please take care of your people” (see Isa. 37:14–20), and God solved the problem. He sent one angel who killed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers in one day. And when Sennacherib went home to Assyria, his sons killed him.

Go to God in prayer, and he will take care of your problems as he did for Jesus when he entrusted his troubles to his Father. When we are maltreated, we are not to retaliate; we must pray. Paul writes, “Do not take revenge, my friends, but leave room for God’s wrath, for it is written: ‘It is mine to avenge; I will repay,’ says the Lord” (Rom. 12:19).

God will deal with every sin. Jesus Christ is coming again, and the Father has given him all authority to judge. Jesus said, “Moreover, the Father judges no one, but has entrusted all judgment to the Son” (John 5:22). Either you believe in Jesus Christ as Savior, or you will meet him as the Judge who will send you to hell. Every knee must bow to him. Paul writes, “And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death—even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father” (Phil. 2:8–11).

Christ is coming again to judge all men. The rich man died and went to hell. He was in torment, in agony, and in fire (Luke 16:19–31). If anyone mocks the Bible or a true minister, he is mocking Jesus Christ, and he will pay for it. That is why Paul exhorts, “Work out your salvation with fear and trembling” (Phil. 2:12). Elsewhere he says, “God is just: He will pay back trouble to those who trouble you and give relief to you who are troubled, and to us as well. This will happen when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven in blazing fire with his powerful angels. He will punish those who do not know God and do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus” (2 Thess. 1:6–8).

Sinless Jesus suffered silently in our place for our sins. Paul writes, “He was delivered over to death for our sins and was raised to life for our justification” (Rom. 4:25). Paul also declares, “He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?” (Rom. 8:32). The soldiers spat on his face, struck him, slapped him, mocked him, and, finally, crucified him (Matt. 27:27–31). The cross is first, the crown is later. Christ went to the cross; then, God exalted him. That is also God’s pattern for us. We are to follow him through Calvary to glory; then, God will give us a crown of life, a crown of righteousness, and a crown of glory. (PGM) If we endure suffering by the Spirit, we will also reign with him.

Sin-bearing Christ

Peter continues, “Our sins Christ himself bore in his body on the tree, that having died to our sins, we may live unto righteousness, by whose bleeding wound we are healed” (v. 24, author’s translation). This verse is the heart of the gospel. Peter was reflecting on Isaiah 53:5 and 12. Isaiah 53:5 says, “But he was pierced for our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed.” Isaiah 53:12 says, “Therefore I will give him a portion among the great, and he will divide the spoils with the strong, because he poured out his life unto death, and was numbered with the transgressors.  For he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.”

What was the purpose of Christ’s incarnation? Christ became incarnate to give his life a ransom for many. Christ died not for his sins but for our sins (huper tôn hamartiôn hêmon). Earlier Peter wrote, “For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed from the empty way of life handed down to you from your forefathers, but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect” (1 Pet. 1:18–19). And we read previously, “For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God” (1 Pet. 3:18).

Christ died as our substitute for our sins. Paul writes, “All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Rom. 3:23). He also says, “For the wages of sin is [eternal] death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Rom. 6:23).

God’s wrath was against us (Rom. 1:18), but it was poured out fully upon Jesus. Now the cup of God’s wrath is empty; no wrath will come on us. He paid the highest price for our redemption.

The entire creation has no value to redeem us. What does it profit if we gain the whole world and lose our souls? You can be the richest person in the world, but you must die. And you will go to hell unless you put your trust in Jesus Christ. I urge you to deny yourself, take up the cross, and follow Christ. Jesus said we cannot serve two masters, God and money.

Jesus took all our sins on himself and suffered God’s full wrath in his body and soul. Remember, he cried out from the cross, “Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani” (“My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?”). The Scriptures give the answer: Jesus died for the sins of the elect people of God, whom God chose before the creation of the world. He foreloved them, he chose them, he predestinated them, he effectually called them, he justified them, he adopted them, and he sanctified them that they may be glorified. We are God’s treasure, his segullah, and God is our segullah, our precious inheritance.

Jesus offered himself as a sacrifice of atonement for our sins on the altar of the cross. So God can justly justify all who believe in Christ because he paid for all our sins when he died on the cross. In Christ alone we find our justification, our redemption, our reconciliation, our propitiation, and our double transaction. He took all our sins and he gave us his perfect righteousness once for all.

Consider what Leon Morris wrote in his book, The Cross in the New Testament:

Redemption is substitutionary, for it means that Christ paid the price that we could not pay, paid it in our stead, and we go free. Justification interprets our salvation judicially, and as the New Testament sees it Christ took our legal liability, took it in our stead. Reconciliation means the making of people to be at one by the taking away of the cause of hostility. In this case the cause is sin, and Christ removed that cause for us. We could not deal with sin. He could and did, and did it in such a way that it is reckoned to us. Propitiation points us to the removal of the divine wrath, and Christ has done this by bearing the wrath for us. It was our sin which drew it down; it was He who bore it. . . .Was there a priced to be paid? He paid it. Was there a victory to be won? He won it. Was there a penalty to be borne? He bore it. Was there a judgment to be faced? He faced it.[1]

The Hebrews writer says, “So Christ was sacrificed once to take away the sins of many people; and he will appear a second time, not to bear sin, but to bring salvation to those who are waiting for him” (Heb. 9:28). John tells us, “The next day John saw Jesus coming toward him and said, ‘Look, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!’” (John 1:29). Paul writes, “For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed” (1 Cor. 5:7).

There is no other Savior. Christ alone is the Savior of the whole world, as the Samaritans confessed (John 4:42). Peter declared, “Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved” (Acts 4:12). Jesus himself said, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14:6). Any worship of God outside of Jesus Christ is worship of demons (1 Cor. 10:20–21).

When Jesus died on the cross, he took away our curse, our death, and our hell inherited from Adam and due to our own sins. Paul writes, “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law by becoming a curse for us, for it is written: ‘Cursed is everyone who is hung on a tree.’ He redeemed us in order that the blessing given to Abraham might come to the Gentiles through Christ Jesus, so that by faith we might receive the promise of the Spirit” (Gal. 3:14–15).

The purpose of Christ’s substitutionary death is that believers in Christ may live holy lives by doing God’s will by the power of the Holy Spirit. We died with Christ, we were buried with Christ, and we were raised with Christ to live new lives. We are united with Christ by faith. And in Christ, we died to sin, so sin is no longer our master. Jesus paid for our sins by his life and death; now Jesus Christ is our Lord and Master.  Paul writes, “Therefore, there is now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (Rom. 8:1).

As branches, we are united by faith to Christ the vine. His life flows continually into us so that we may bear much fruit of obedience for the glory of our heavenly Father. So Jesus said, “I am the vine; you are the branches. If a man remains in me and I in him, he will bear much fruit; apart from me you can do nothing” (John 15:5). What does that mean? With him, we can do all things; we can even die for his name. Paul explains, “[Christ] died for all that those who live should no longer live for themselves but for him who died for them and was raised again” (2 Cor. 5:15). He also says, “The grace of God that brings salvation has appeared to all men. It teaches us to say ‘No’ to ungodliness and worldly passions, and to live self-controlled, upright and godly lives in this present age” (Titus 2:11–12).  Paul also declares, “But now that you have been set free from sin and have become slaves to God, the benefit you reap leads to holiness, and the result is eternal life” (Rom. 6:22).

Condemned be that pastor who says one can believe in Jesus and continue in sin! Yet that is the dominant position in the evangelical world today. But I say that antinomian Christians are children of the devil; they are false Christians. Without personal holiness, no one will see God (Heb. 12:14). Jesus said, “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God” (Matt. 5:8).

Peter said, “By his bleeding wounds we are healed” (v. 24). On the basis of Christ’s atoning sacrifice, by faith in Jesus, every believer is saved forever, body and soul. We are saved, we are being saved, and we will be saved. And in God’s sovereign will, he may heal even our sicknesses, as Jesus did when he was on earth. We read, “When evening came, many who were demon-possessed were brought to him, and he drove out the spirits with a word and healed all the sick. This was to fulfill what was spoken through the prophet Isaiah: ‘He took up our infirmities and carried our diseases’” (Matt. 8:16–17). In his sovereign will, God has healed me many times, and he healed my parents. Yet there are times God does not heal us.  Paul wrote, “I left Trophimus sick at Miletus.” It was not God’s will to heal him at that time. Paul himself prayed three times for his torment to end, and God said, “No. I gave it to you to keep you from becoming conceited” (2 Cor. 12:7–10). In his sovereign will, God may heal; in his sovereign will, he may not.

Yet whether we are healed or not, at death our spirits will be made perfect and we will be brought to heaven. And at Christ’s second coming, he will give each believer a glorious body, like unto his own sinless glorious physical body. Paul speaks of this: “Our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ, who, by the power that enables him to bring everything under his control, will transform our lowly bodies so that they will be like his glorious body” (Phil. 3:20–21). He also says, “When Christ, who is your life, appears, then you also will appear with him in glory” (Col. 3:4).

By his bleeding wounds, the worst sinners are healed and saved, and saved forever. Listen to Paul: “Here is a trustworthy saying that deserves full acceptance: Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners—of whom I am the worst” (1 Tim. 1:15). Paul gloried in the gospel because the gospel saved him. Gospel means good news.

Christ, Our Shepherd and Bishop

Finally, Peter says, “For you were like sheep going astray, but now you have returned to the Shepherd and Overseer of your souls” (v. 25). Peter is quoting Isaiah 53:6: “We all, like sheep, have gone astray, each of us has turned to his own way; and the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all.”

Jesus is our shepherd. He himself told us, “I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep” (John 10:11). And in Ezekiel 34:11 we read, “For this is what the Sovereign Lord says: I myself will search for my sheep and look after them.”

The reason for Christ’s atoning sacrifice on the cross was our going astray from God. Paul writes,

What shall we conclude then? Are we any better? Not at all! We have already made the charge that Jews and Gentiles alike are all under sin. As it is written: “There is no one righteous, not even one; there is no one who understands, no one who seeks God. All have turned away, they have together become worthless; there is no one who does good, not even one.” “Their throats are open graves; their tongues practice deceit.”  “The poison of vipers is on their lips.” “Their mouths are full of cursing and bitterness.”  “Their feet are swift to shed blood; ruin and misery mark their ways, and the way of peace they do not know.” “There is no fear of God before their eyes.” (Rom. 3:9–18)

The reason for Christ’s incarnation is our sin. Paul says, “Sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all men, because all sinned” (Rom. 5:12). He also says, “For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Rom. 6:23). Jesus Christ came to forgive our sins, to justify us, and to give us the gift of salvation.

Christ died our death for our sins. The Bible likens us to sheep who, when they stray from the shepherd, get confused and bewildered. Eventually, they lie down, unwilling to move until the shepherd comes to take them home. Jesus came from heaven to seek and save lost elect sinners. In his body, his suffered and died for our sins to lead us all home to heaven, to glory.

So now, Peter says, we have returned to our Shepherd and the Bishop of our souls. Sheep depend on the shepherd for total care. The psalmist says, “The Lord is my shepherd, I shall lack nothing” (Ps. 23:1).  Jesus said, “I give them eternal life, and they shall never perish; no one can snatch them out of my hand. My Father, who has given them to me, is greater than all; no one can snatch them out of my Father’s hand” (John 10:28-29). In our good shepherd Jesus, we have eternal security.

Through effectual calling, we turned from sin and turned to Jesus in saving faith. He drew us, and we came to him in true repentance and saving faith. Jesus is our good shepherd, our chief shepherd, and our great shepherd. He is our life.

God has appointed undershepherds to take care of the sheep under his care. Paul writes about this: “It was [the risen Christ] who gave some to be apostles, some to be prophets, some to be evangelists, and some to be pastors and teachers” (Eph. 4:11). Paul told the Ephesian elders, “Keep watch over yourselves and all the flock of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be shepherds of the church of God, which he bought with his own blood” (Acts 20:28). Imagine how much God loved us to redeem us by the highest price, the blood of God! Elsewhere, Peter says, “Be shepherds of God’s flock that is under your care, serving as overseers—not because you must, but because you are willing, as God wants you to be; not greedy for money, but eager to serve” (1 Pet. 5:2). God’s undershepherds are to not be greedy for money but eager to serve God and his people. Cursed is the man who becomes a pastor to make money.

Jesus knows all our needs, and he will provide for us, as he promised: “Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things will be added unto you” (Matt. 6:33, KJV). He may not provide all our wants, but he will provide for our basic needs. Paul says, “If we have food and clothing, we will be content with that (1 Tim. 6:8). And he also ordains suffering for our spiritual good, to make us holy and mature, to make us like Christ, that we may dwell with him in eternal happiness.

Conclusion

The psalmist declared, “One thing I ask of the Lord, this is what I seek: that I may dwell in the house of the Lord to gaze upon the beauty of the Lord and to seek him in his temple” (Ps. 27:4). Eternal life is life in the presence of God. God is our supreme happiness, our treasure, and, though we cannot understand this great truth, we are his. So the psalmist also says, “In his presence there is fullness of joy, and on his right hand, eternal pleasure” (Ps. 16:11, KJV). And John writes,

Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and there was no longer any sea. I saw the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride beautifully dressed for her husband. And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, “Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away.” (Rev. 21:1–4)

In conclusion, therefore, let me ask you the following questions:

1. Have you returned to Jesus from your sinful, wandering life?
2. Have you trusted in Jesus Christ alone for your eternal salvation? “He was delivered over to death for our sins and was raised to life for our justification” (Rom. 4:25).
3. Do you know that Jesus Christ is both Savior and Judge? Everyone will face him on the last day.
4. Do you know that every sinner will be judged? We will be judged either in the God-provided substitute, Jesus, or in our own beings, in which we will bear the totality of God’s wrath for all eternity.
5. Can you say, “Having been justified through faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ” (Rom. 5:1)? Can you say, “Therefore, there is now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (Rom. 8:1)? Can you say, “Nothing in all creation will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Rom. 8:39)?
6. Do you cast all your cares upon the Lord who always cares for you as the Good Shepherd?
7. If you died today in God’s holy will, would your spirit be perfected and be brought to paradise, as was true of poor Lazarus of Luke 16 and the soul of the believing thief in Luke 23?

Know for certain that heaven or hell, eternal life or eternal punishment, awaits every soul. May God help you to trust in Christ today, that you may live with him forever.

[1] Quoted by John MacArthur in 1 Peter, The MacArthur New Testament Commentary series (Chicago: Moody, 2004), 170.